Historical Dictionary Of Mesoamerica

Mesoamerica is one of six major areas of the world where humans independently changed their culture from a nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyle into settled communities, cities, and civilization. In addition to China (twice), the Indus Valley, the Fertile Crescent of southwest Asia, Egypt, and Peru, Mesoamerica was home to exciting and irreversible changes in human culture called the "Neolithic Revolution." The changes included domestication of plants and animals, leading to agriculture, husbandry, and eventually sedentary village life. These developments set the stage for the growth of cities, social stratification, craft specialization, warfare, writing, mathematics, and astronomy, or what we call the rise of civilization. These changes forever transformed humankind. The Historical Dictionary of Mesoamerica covers the history of Mesoamerica through a chronology, an introductory essay, an extensive bibliography, and over 900 cross-referenced dictionary entries covering the major peoples, places, ideas, and events related to Mesoamerica. This book is an excellent access point for students, researchers, and anyone wanting to know more about Mesoamerica.

"This historical dictionary covers some of the major discoveries of the diverse investigations that have taken place throughout ancient Mesoamerican over the last 100 years."--Preface.

This second edition of Historical Dictionary of Architecture contains a chronology, an introduction, and an extensive bibliography. The dictionary section has over 400 cross-referenced entries on architects, famous structures, types of materials, and the different architectural styles.

El Salvador might be the smallest country in Central America by territory but it has had a significant impact on the region and played an important role in U.S. foreign policy toward Latin America. The country’s history is intertwined with the struggles for self-determination and sovereignty both from Spanish colonial domination and after independence from the rule of foreign caudillos and its stronger neighbors, such as Mexico and Guatemala. The country had an important role in United States policies toward Latin America during the Cold War. The Historical Dictionary of El Salvador contains a chronology, an introduction, appendixes, and an extensive bibliography. The dictionary section has over 200 cross-referenced entries on important personalities, politics, economy, foreign relations, religion, and culture. This book is an excellent access point for students, researchers, and anyone wanting to know more about El Salvador.

The Historical Dictionary of Guatemala contains a chronology, an introduction, and an extensive bibliography. The dictionary section has over 700 cross-referenced entries on important personalities, politics, economy, foreign relations, religion, and culture.

While most visitors to Mexico visit one of the great Mayan cities, it is worth visiting some of the lesser-known ruins like Mayapan and Balamku. Mayapan is an ancient Maya city in the northern Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico. The site has a long history, with its first occupation dating back to at least 900 BC and its last occupation dating to around 1450 AD. The word "Mayapan" means "Hill of the Jaguar." The name refers to the shape of one of three hills that formed it - this hill was called Pa Chan (Place of the Jaguar). It was here that a jaguar deity named Chac reigned. When Chac left his post as a god of rain, the rain ceased falling on earth for four years until he returned; during this time, people were forced to irrigate their crops by hand or die from thirst if they failed at growing corn without rainwater overflow from nearby lakes and rivers. The city of Teotihuacan is one of the most important archaeological sites in Mexico. It was the center of a civilization at its peak around the 1st century B.C. and was abandoned around 650 AD, leaving behind an impressive collection of pyramids and other structures. As you explore this site, you will discover how these ancient people lived and what they left behind for us to admire today. Tulum is a small town on the coast of the Yucatán Peninsula, south of Cancún. It may not be your first choice if you look for beaches and relaxation. But if you want to see some fantastic architecture—and walk in the footsteps of the Maya—you should definitely make plans to visit Tulum. The Mayans built the city between 1200 and 1450 CE (Common Era) as a seaport for trading with other cultures in Mesoamerica. Its popularity rose with increased trade throughout Mexico during this period; however, it fell into disrepair after Spanish colonization began around 1519 CE when conquistador Hernán Cortés took control over what had been largely autonomous states up until then. The buildings are made from limestone quarried from nearby cliffs and from sandstone blocks that were likely carried from much further away by barge or canoe along rivers and lakes (since there were no roads). The city of Uxmal is a magnificent example of the Puuc style, with its buildings built of fine stuccoed brickwork. As you explore the site, you can see how closely related it is to Chichén Itzá and other major Maya sites in the region. The Pyramid of the Magician (also known as El Castillo) - is a fantastic pyramid building with 4 sides, each having 91 steps and each step 7 feet tall for a total height of 65 feet! House of Turtles (or Casa del Adivino) - this building has beautiful decorations both inside and out depicting turtles in different positions; some say that these turtles represent wisdom or knowledge. Tikal is the largest Mayan ruin in Guatemala and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The city was the capital of the Maya kingdom of the same name and one of their most potent cities, dating back to at least 200 B.C., if not earlier. It was abandoned by the Maya around 900 A.D., but its temples still tower over the jungle floor today—some are even taller than they were when they were first built! Palenque, Crown of the North, is one of the most critical sites in the Maya world. Palenque was once a thriving city and capital of one of Mexico's most powerful states. It boasts some of the most impressive ruins on this list. It was first discovered by a German explorer in 1719 while looking for a site to build his own city. The main pyramid at Palenque rises over 70 meters (230 ft) into the air, and its steps are steep enough to pause even hardened explorers when climbing them! There are also two smaller temples nearby and many smaller statues depicting jaguars – these symbolize power for humans and gods alike.

The A to Z of Ancient Mesoamerica covers some of the major discoveries throughout ancient Mesoamerica from the last 100 years. The results of previous and continuing research and explorations, plus recent interpretations of ancient cultures and new work at archaeological sites in Mesoamerica are summarized here. Included in this volume are information and insights on archaeological sites, material culture, social and economic organization, religion and belief systems, and the social history of ancient Mesoamerica. The entries contain geographical, chronological, historical, and interpretive data that serve as a condensed and accessible resource of reference material.

The second edition of the Historical Dictionary of the Reformed Churches contains information on the major personalities, events, facts, movements, and beliefs of the Reformed churches.

The Central Andes, Mexico, El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Peru, and Bolivia all have deep roots in their pre-Columbian civilizations. The first chapters of Latin America's history correspond to those who inhabited it before encountering Europeans. This is especially true in Mesoamerica. The objectives are to show the development of the peoples and high civilizations of Mesoamerica before the arrival of the Mexica (Aztecs) in the Valley of Mexico (1325); second, to examine the key features of the political and socioeconomic organization, as well as the artistic and intellectual achievements achieved during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries under Mexica (Aztec) rule. Finally, present a vision of Mesoamerican life on the eve of the European invasion (1519), between North and South America's solid continental masses; the area of Mesoamerica (that is, the region where it developed with great cultural difficulties, which reached an area of about 900,000 km2 when the Spaniards arrived), with its varied isthmic characteristics and geographical features, such as Tehuantepec and Fonseca Gulfs, the Yucatan Peninsula, and the Gulf of Honduras Gulf. German specialists, such as Eduard Seler, introduced Mittel Amerika over 70 years ago to denote the region where high indigenous cultures flourished in central and southern Mexico. Norah Romney focused attention on what he called Mesoamerica many years later. The concept of Mesoamerica goes beyond geography. High indigenous culture and civilization have also developed and unfolded in various forms and periods. When the Spanish invaded in 1519, its northern borders were the Sinaloa River to the northwest and the Panuco to the northeast; it extended beyond the Lerma River basin in the north-central part. Its southern limits were the Motagua River that empties into the Gulf of Honduras in the Caribbean, the south shore of Lake Nicaragua, and the Nicoya Peninsula in Costa Rica, and these locations developed highly advanced cultures, showing a greater degree of geographical and ecological diversity than any other region of comparable extension in the entire planet. There is a complex geological history in the region. Recent volcanic activity and mountain formation have played a vital role in the shape of various natural regions. The mountains have two volcanic axes, one that runs east-west along the southern limits of the Valley of Mexico and the other that runs northwest-southeast through Mexico and Central America.

The Olmec language and Teotihuacan language are still outside this preliminary classification: the ones represented by the Olmec area and those of Teotihuacan, which are currently being studied and discovered. Though it is still difficult to prove, there is some probability that the Olmec language preceded Totonac. In contrast, it is more specific than the writings and speech of Teotihuacan, which led to Nahua's development. The Mexican population that migrated to Nicaragua later spread this language in its various variants throughout the central Valley of Mexico, even reaching the south of Mesoamerica, to Nicaragua. During the destruction and abandonment of Teotihuacan around 600, the written system of their successors, the Toltecs, was lost but may have been revived later in Aztec ideographic writing.

Encyclopedia of the Ancient Maya provides an A-to-Z overview of the ancient Maya culture from its inception to the Spanish Conquest. Exploring Maya society, celebrations, and achievements, as well as new insights into Maya culture and collapse, this is a sophisticated yet accessible introduction suitable for students and general readers.

The Byzantine Empire dates back to Constantine the Great, the first Christian ruler of the Roman Empire, who, in 330 AD, moved the imperial capital from Rome to a port city in modern-day Turkey, which he then renamed Constantinople in his honor. From its founding, the Byzantine Empire was a major anchor of east-west trade, and culture, art, architecture, and the economy all prospered in the newly Christian empire. As Byzantium moved into the middle and late period, Greek became the official language of both church and state and the Empire's cultural and religious influence extended well beyond its boundaries. In the mid-15th century, the Ottoman Turks put an end to 1,100 years of Byzantine history by capturing Constantinople, but the Empire's legacy in art, culture, and religion endured long after its fall. In this revised and updated second edition of the Historical Dictionary of Byzantium, author John H. Rosser introduces both the general reader and the researcher to the history of the Byzantine Empire. This comprehensive dictionary includes detailed, alphabetical entries on key figures, ideas, places, and themes related to Byzantine art, history, and religion, and the second edition contains numerous additional entries on broad topics such as transportation and gender, which were less prominent in the previous edition. An expanded introduction introduces the reader to Byzantium and a guide to further sources and suggested readings can be found in the extensive bibliography that follows the entries. A basic chronology and various maps and illustrations are also included in the dictionary. This book is an excellent access point for students, researchers, and anyone wanting to know more about Byzantium.

"The one source that sets reference collections on Latin American studies apart from all other geographic areas of the world.... The Handbook has provided scholars interested in Latin America with a bibliographical source of a quality unavailable to scholars in most other branches of area studies." —Latin American Research Review Beginning with volume 41 (1979), the University of Texas Press became the publisher of the Handbook of Latin American Studies, the most comprehensive annual bibliography in the field. Compiled by the Hispanic Division of the Library of Congress and annotated by a corps of more than 130 specialists in various disciplines, the Handbook alternates from year to year between social sciences and humanities. The Handbook annotates works on Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean and the Guianas, Spanish South America, and Brazil, as well as materials covering Latin America as a whole. Most of the subsections are preceded by introductory essays that serve as biannual evaluations of the literature and research under way in specialized areas. The Handbook of Latin American Studies is the oldest continuing reference work in the field. Lawrence Boudon, of the Library of Congress Hispanic Division, has been the editor since 2001, and Katherine D. McCann has been assistant editor since 2000. The subject categories for Volume 59 are as follows: Anthropology Economics Geography Government and Politics International Relations Sociology Electronic Resources for the Social Sciences

The myths and beliefs of the great pre-Columbian civilizations of Mesoamerica have baffled and fascinated outsiders ever since the Spanish Conquest. Yet, until now, no single-volume introduction has existed to act as a guide to this labyrinthine symbolic world. The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya is the first-ever English-language dictionary of Mesoamerican mythology and religion. Nearly 300 entries, from accession to yoke, describe the main gods and symbols of the Olmecs, Zapotecs, Maya, Teotihuacanos, Mixtecs, Toltecs, and Aztecs. Topics range from jaguar and jester gods to reptile eye and rubber, from creation accounts and sacred places to ritual practices such as bloodletting, confession, dance, and pilgrimage. In addition, two introductory essays provide succinct accounts of Mesoamerican history and religion, while a substantial bibliographical survey directs the reader to original sources and recent discussions. Dictionary entries are illustrated with photographs and specially commissioned line drawings. Mary Miller and Karl Taube draw on their research in the fast-changing field of Maya studies, and on the latest Mexican discoveries, to produce an authoritative work that will serve as a standard reference for students, scholars, and travelers.

This reference is devoted to the pre-Columbian archaeology of the Mesoamerican culture area, one of the six cradles of early civilization. It features in-depth articles on the major cultural areas of ancient Mexico and Central America; coverage of important sites, including the world-renowned discoveries as well as many lesser-known locations; articles on day-to-day life of ancient peoples in these regions; and several bandw regional and site maps and photographs. Entries are arranged alphabetically and cover introductory archaeological facts (flora, fauna, human growth and development, nonorganic resources), chronologies of various periods (Paleoindian, Archaic, Formative, Classic and Postclassic, and Colonial), cultural features, Maya, regional summaries, research methods and resources, ethnohistorical methods and sources, and scholars and research history. Edited by archaeologists Evans and Webster, both of whom are associated with Pennsylvania State University. c. Book News Inc.

Provides detailed entries on the antiquities of pre-Columbian Central America and the civilizations of region's peoples